Blanc de Chine is a type of white Chinese porcelain, made at Dehua in the Fujian province. It has been produced from the Ming Dynasty to the present day. Large quantities arrived in Europe as Chinese Export Porcelain in the early 18th century and it was copied at Meissen and elsewhere.
The area along the Fujian coast was traditionally one of the main ceramic exporting centers. Over one-hundred and eighty kiln sites have been identified extending in historical range from the Song period to present. The two principal kiln sites were those of Qudougong 屈斗宫 and Wanpinglun 碗坪仑. The Wanpinglun site is the older of the two and manufactured pressed wares and others.
The kilns of Dehua also produced other ceramic wares, including some with under glaze blue decoration.
From the Ming period porcelain objects were manufactured that achieved a fusion of glaze and body traditionally referred to as "ivory white" and "milk white." The special characteristic of Dehua porcelain is the very small amount of iron oxide in it, allowing it to be fired in an oxidising atmosphere to a warm white or pale ivory color. This color makes it instantly recognizable and quite different from the porcelain from the Imperial kilns of Jingdezhen, which contains more iron and has to be fired in reduction if it is not to appear an unpleasant straw color.
The porcelain body is not very plastic but vessel forms have been made from it. Donnelly, lists the following types of product: figures, boxes, vases and jars, cups and bowls, fishes, lamps, cup-stands, censers and flowerpots, animals, brush holders, wine and teapots, Buddhist and Taoist figures, secular figures and puppets. There was a large output of figures, especially religious figures, e.g. Guanyin, Maitreya, and Ta-mo figures. Guanyin, the Goddess of Mercy, was particularly revered in Fujian and there exist innumerable figures of her. Donnelly says, “There is no doubt that figures constitute the great glory of ''blanc de Chine''.” Some have been produced with little modification from the late 16th or early 17th century . Crisply modeled figures with a smooth white glaze were popular as were joss-stick holders, brush pots, ''Dogs of Fo'', libation and boxes.
The devotional objects produced at Dehua “conformed to the official stipulations of the early Ming period, not only in their whiteness but also in imitating the shape of archaic ritual objects”. They were probably used in the domestic shrines that every Chinese home possessed. However, one Confucian polemicist, Wen Zhenheng , specifically forbade the use of Dehua wares for religious purposes, presumably for their lack of antiquity: “Among the censers the use of which should be specifically forbidden are those recently made in the kilns of Fujian .”
The numerous Dehua porcelain factories today make figures and tableware in modern styles. During the Cultural Revolution “Dehua artisans applied their very best skills to produce immaculate statuettes of the Great Leader and the heroes of the revolution. Portraits of the stars of the new proletarian opera in their most famous roles were produced on a truly massive scale.” Mao figures later fell out of favor but have been revived for foreign collectors.
Precise dating of ''blanc de Chine'' of the Ming and Qing dynasties is often difficult because the conservatism of the Dehua potters led them to produce similar pieces for decades or even for centuries. There are ''blanc de Chine'' figures being made in Dehua today little different from those made in the Ming dynasty.
Notable artists in ''blanc de Chine'', such as the late Ming period He Chaozong, signed their creations with their seals. Wares include crisply modeled figures, , bowls and joss stick-holders.
Many of the best examples of ''blanc de Chine'' are found in Japan where they are used in family altars and other funerary and religious uses. Dehua white porcelain in Japan is a separate subject in itself. In Japan the white variety was termed ''hakugorai'' or "Korean white", a term often found in tea ceremony circles. The British Museum in London has a large number of ''blanc de Chine'' pieces, having received as a gift in 1980 the entire collection of P.J.Donnelly.
Friday, October 3, 2008
Yingqing ware
Yingqing ware is porcelain, primarily from the Song Dynasty, made in the vicinity of Jingdezhen in Jiangxi, and also in Hebei. It is known as the first porcelain to be produced in quantity.
It is identified by its distinctive blue-tinted glaze over a white porcelain body. Early production imitated northern white wares in shape and decoration such as Ding wares produced in Hebei province; however, firing in reduction produces the blue tint, as opposed to the more opaque white of the Ding wares. Decoration usually features incised lines in which the glaze pools, or a limited amount of moulding.
It is identified by its distinctive blue-tinted glaze over a white porcelain body. Early production imitated northern white wares in shape and decoration such as Ding wares produced in Hebei province; however, firing in reduction produces the blue tint, as opposed to the more opaque white of the Ding wares. Decoration usually features incised lines in which the glaze pools, or a limited amount of moulding.
Tiger Cave Kiln
Recent excavations at the Tiger Cave Kiln at Hangzhou in the province of Zhejiang have helped to identify one site of origin of the important ceramic wares of the Southern Song Dynasty known as ''Guan'' or ''Official'' wares, which were made for the exclusive use of the imperial court.
In 1127 AD, under pressure from invading , the court was driven south of the Yellow River and in 1138 AD established a new capital at Hangzhou, in the province of Zhejiang .
The move to the south resulted in the abandonment of kilns used to make ceramic wares for the northern court, but by 1149 AD two new kilns had been built at Hangzhou to make porcelain for the newly-established Southern Song court ; the first kiln under the control of the ''Xiuneisi'' and the second near to the ''Jiaotanxia'' .
The location of the ''Jiaotanxia'' kiln was finally established by excavations carried out between 1984 and 1986; but the location of the ''Xiuneisi'' kiln remained unknown until excavations started in 1998 at the Tiger Cave kiln site provided confirmation that this was the hitherto unidentified ''Xiuneisi'' kiln .
From 1998 to 2001 the Hangzhou Hangzhou Archaeological Institute of Cultural Relics excavated the Laohudong Kiln . The results have rewritten Chinese ceramic history and solved mysteries that have haunted the field for literally hundreds of years. Excavated fall within the historical range of the to the . The Southern Song celadon sherds show clearly that the Tiger cave Kiln was the ceramic production site for Southern Song official ware . Tiger Cave is a seven hundred meter area located between Phoenix Mountain and Nine Flowers Mountain. The site is not more than a hundred meters from the north wall area of the Southern Song Imperial City area. Likewise it is two and a half miles from another Song production area known as the Jiaotan Official Ware Kiln . The discovery of the Kiln site took place in 1996 after an extensive archeological search of the area. Southern Song shards display shapes that correspond to ritual vessels such as celadon vases and incense burners. Clearly the original objects were intended for palace use. The shards are primarily of a powder blue color. Next in number are those of a honey tint. The celadon shards display a rich thick glaze with prominent crackle and crazing. Clearly the kiln site is the long lost Official Ceramic Ware site referred to in historical texts as the Xiuneisi Official Ware Kiln . The Mongol Period strata of the archaeological site perhaps solves another long standing ceramic history mystery i.e. that of the Ge Kiln ceramic ware. After the fall of the Southern Song court and the unification of the Chinese nation under Mongol rule the Tiger Kiln maintained production. A portion of the ceramic production of this period continued to be celadon ware in the official ware style. This conforms to period historical references.
The Tiger Cave Kiln and other associated ceramic ware sites have come under the control of Hangzhou Southern Song Guan Kiln Museum located in the west area of Turtle Hill of Yuhuang Mountain in Hangzhou, providing a detailed appreciation of the history and aesthetics of some of China's most celebrated ceramics.
Southern Song ''guan'' wares are rare and public domain pictures of them are difficult to find. The Percival David Foundation in London has in its collection a number of pieces that some scholars believe were made at the Xiuneisi kiln; a kiln which has now been identified as the Laohudong kiln. The links below point to two such specimens.
This picture shows a Southern Song ''guan'' ware lobed dish, described as having a fine, dark stoneware body and a thick, clear, blue-grey crackled glaze.
This picture shows a Southern Song ''guan'' ware pear-shaped vase, described as having a thick, clear, soft blue glaze with widely-spaced crackles, stained golden-brown probably by the body material to which the glaze was applied. The foot-rim and the mouth-rim are bound with bands of copper and as a result the unglazed parts of the body are not visible. The vase is from the imperial collection and is "felt by many scholars to represent perfection among ''guan'' wares".
Source for this Section .
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Introduction
In 1127 AD, under pressure from invading , the court was driven south of the Yellow River and in 1138 AD established a new capital at Hangzhou, in the province of Zhejiang .
The move to the south resulted in the abandonment of kilns used to make ceramic wares for the northern court, but by 1149 AD two new kilns had been built at Hangzhou to make porcelain for the newly-established Southern Song court ; the first kiln under the control of the ''Xiuneisi'' and the second near to the ''Jiaotanxia'' .
The location of the ''Jiaotanxia'' kiln was finally established by excavations carried out between 1984 and 1986; but the location of the ''Xiuneisi'' kiln remained unknown until excavations started in 1998 at the Tiger Cave kiln site provided confirmation that this was the hitherto unidentified ''Xiuneisi'' kiln .
Excavations at the site
From 1998 to 2001 the Hangzhou Hangzhou Archaeological Institute of Cultural Relics excavated the Laohudong Kiln . The results have rewritten Chinese ceramic history and solved mysteries that have haunted the field for literally hundreds of years. Excavated fall within the historical range of the to the . The Southern Song celadon sherds show clearly that the Tiger cave Kiln was the ceramic production site for Southern Song official ware . Tiger Cave is a seven hundred meter area located between Phoenix Mountain and Nine Flowers Mountain. The site is not more than a hundred meters from the north wall area of the Southern Song Imperial City area. Likewise it is two and a half miles from another Song production area known as the Jiaotan Official Ware Kiln . The discovery of the Kiln site took place in 1996 after an extensive archeological search of the area. Southern Song shards display shapes that correspond to ritual vessels such as celadon vases and incense burners. Clearly the original objects were intended for palace use. The shards are primarily of a powder blue color. Next in number are those of a honey tint. The celadon shards display a rich thick glaze with prominent crackle and crazing. Clearly the kiln site is the long lost Official Ceramic Ware site referred to in historical texts as the Xiuneisi Official Ware Kiln . The Mongol Period strata of the archaeological site perhaps solves another long standing ceramic history mystery i.e. that of the Ge Kiln ceramic ware. After the fall of the Southern Song court and the unification of the Chinese nation under Mongol rule the Tiger Kiln maintained production. A portion of the ceramic production of this period continued to be celadon ware in the official ware style. This conforms to period historical references.
The Tiger Cave Kiln and other associated ceramic ware sites have come under the control of Hangzhou Southern Song Guan Kiln Museum located in the west area of Turtle Hill of Yuhuang Mountain in Hangzhou, providing a detailed appreciation of the history and aesthetics of some of China's most celebrated ceramics.
Southern Song ''guan'' wares
Southern Song ''guan'' wares are rare and public domain pictures of them are difficult to find. The Percival David Foundation in London has in its collection a number of pieces that some scholars believe were made at the Xiuneisi kiln; a kiln which has now been identified as the Laohudong kiln. The links below point to two such specimens.
This picture shows a Southern Song ''guan'' ware lobed dish, described as having a fine, dark stoneware body and a thick, clear, blue-grey crackled glaze.
This picture shows a Southern Song ''guan'' ware pear-shaped vase, described as having a thick, clear, soft blue glaze with widely-spaced crackles, stained golden-brown probably by the body material to which the glaze was applied. The foot-rim and the mouth-rim are bound with bands of copper and as a result the unglazed parts of the body are not visible. The vase is from the imperial collection and is "felt by many scholars to represent perfection among ''guan'' wares".
Source for this Section .
Links
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Tenkei blue-and-white ware
Tenkei blue-and-white ware refers to Chinese underglaze blue porcelain made in the unofficial kilns of Jingdezhen for a largely Japanese market in the 17th century. Tenkei in Japanese indicates the reign of the Chinese Tianqi Emperor from 1621-1628. Generally speaking Tenkei blue-and white ware was one variety of porcelain among various styles of the Jingdezhen unofficial kilns from a time of production breakdown of the official kilns at the death of the Wanli Emperor in 1620 to a time of reorganization during the reign of Emperor Kangxi in 1683. The Tenkei ware, and other associated wares, display a refreshing spontaneity of design that makes them unique in Chinese ceramic history. The influence of the master landscape artist Dong Qichang can be discerned in the use of a dark and light color contrast. Designs for this ware are usually landscapes, birds and flowers, animals and human figures. Sizes are usually small to mid-size flatware and bowls. Many examples of the ware were treasured in Japan as part of the tea ceremony culture. Many examples of this ware show an unmistakable Japanese influence and it is thought that they were especially ordered from Japan by period tea masters. This ware is also known in Japan as ''ko sometsuke'' or “old blue-and white.” Base inscriptions are usually those from previous reigns in the dynasty with a preference for the Chenghua reign mark.
Single-fire process
The single-fire process was created by ceramists during the earliest decades of the Qing Dynasty dubious)) . The Qing Dynasty is generally divided into three distinct periods: Kangxi ; Yongzheng ; and Qianglong . The peace and propsperity which characterized much of the Qing dynasty allowed for a tremendous flowering of the arts and culture. There was strong imperial support for all manner of Chinese artists, artisans and craftspeople.
Shiwan Ware
Shiwan Ware was from kilns located in the Guangdong provincial city of Foshan. Area ceramic production experienced a long history by the late Ming period 1500s when ceramic artisans from perhaps Dehua and Jingdezhen relocated to the Shiwan area and expanded local production into a vigorous export related industry. Shiwan wares provide a contrast with more conservatively rendered Dehua efforts. Clay for the ware was provided not only from area preserves, but also from distant locations that could be variously mixed to provide a variety of textures and desired ceramic outcomes. The range could extend from a porcelain, that could rival Dehua in purity, to a rough stoneware. Shiwan ware was widely exported. Its glazing techniques directly influenced Japanese Shiga wares and others.
*Shanghai Peoples' Art Museum, ''Sekiwan yo'' , Chinese Ceramic Library, vol. 24, Tokyo, 1982.
ARTICLES
BOOKS
*Shanghai Peoples' Art Museum, ''Sekiwan yo'' , Chinese Ceramic Library, vol. 24, Tokyo, 1982.
Porcelain Tower of Nanjing
The Porcelain Tower of Nanjing , also known as Bao'ensi , is a historical archaeological site located on the south bank of the in Nanjing, China. It was constructed in the 15th century as a pagoda, but was mostly destroyed in the 19th century during the course of the Taiping rebellion. However, the tower is now under reconstruction once again.
The tower was octagonal with a base of about 97 ft in diameter. When it was built, the tower was one of the largest buildings in China, rising up to a height of 260 feet with nine stories and a staircase in the middle of the pagoda, which spiraled upwards for 130 steps. The top of the roof was marked by a golden sphere. There were originally plans to add more stories, according to an American missionary who in 1852 visited Nanjing. There are only a few Chinese pagodas that surpass its height, such as the still existent 275 ft tall 11th century Liaodi Pagoda in Hebei or the non-existent 330 ft tall 7th century wooden pagoda of Chang'an.
The tower was built with white porcelain bricks that were said to reflect the sun's rays during the day, and at night as many as 140 lamps were hung from the building to illuminate the tower. Glazes and stoneware were worked into the porcelain and created a mixture of green, yellow, brown and white designs on the sides of the tower, including animals, flowers and landscapes. The tower was also decorated with numerous Buddhist images.
The Porcelain Tower of Nanjing was designed by the Chinese Emperor shortly before its construction, in the early 15th century. It was first discovered by the Western world when European travelers visited it, sometimes listing it as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. After this exposure to the outside world, the tower was seen as a national treasure to both locals and other cultures around the world.
In 1801 a bolt of lightning struck and knocked off the top three stories of the tower, but it was soon restored. The 1843 book ''The Closing Events of the Campaign in China'' by Granville Gower Loch contains a detailed description of the tower as it existed in the early 1840s. In the 1850s the area surrounding the tower erupted in civil war as the Taiping Rebellion reached Nanjing and the Taiping Rebels took over the city. They smashed the Buddhist images and destroyed the inner staircase to deny the Qing enemy an observation platform. American sailors reached the city in May 1854 and visited the hollowed tower. In 1856 the Taiping destroyed the tower in order to prevent a hostile faction from using it to observe and shell the city. After this point, the tower's remnants were forgotten and it lay dormant until a recent surge to try and rebuild the landmark.
Description
The tower was octagonal with a base of about 97 ft in diameter. When it was built, the tower was one of the largest buildings in China, rising up to a height of 260 feet with nine stories and a staircase in the middle of the pagoda, which spiraled upwards for 130 steps. The top of the roof was marked by a golden sphere. There were originally plans to add more stories, according to an American missionary who in 1852 visited Nanjing. There are only a few Chinese pagodas that surpass its height, such as the still existent 275 ft tall 11th century Liaodi Pagoda in Hebei or the non-existent 330 ft tall 7th century wooden pagoda of Chang'an.
The tower was built with white porcelain bricks that were said to reflect the sun's rays during the day, and at night as many as 140 lamps were hung from the building to illuminate the tower. Glazes and stoneware were worked into the porcelain and created a mixture of green, yellow, brown and white designs on the sides of the tower, including animals, flowers and landscapes. The tower was also decorated with numerous Buddhist images.
History
The Porcelain Tower of Nanjing was designed by the Chinese Emperor shortly before its construction, in the early 15th century. It was first discovered by the Western world when European travelers visited it, sometimes listing it as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. After this exposure to the outside world, the tower was seen as a national treasure to both locals and other cultures around the world.
In 1801 a bolt of lightning struck and knocked off the top three stories of the tower, but it was soon restored. The 1843 book ''The Closing Events of the Campaign in China'' by Granville Gower Loch contains a detailed description of the tower as it existed in the early 1840s. In the 1850s the area surrounding the tower erupted in civil war as the Taiping Rebellion reached Nanjing and the Taiping Rebels took over the city. They smashed the Buddhist images and destroyed the inner staircase to deny the Qing enemy an observation platform. American sailors reached the city in May 1854 and visited the hollowed tower. In 1856 the Taiping destroyed the tower in order to prevent a hostile faction from using it to observe and shell the city. After this point, the tower's remnants were forgotten and it lay dormant until a recent surge to try and rebuild the landmark.
Percival David
Sir Percival Victor David Ezekiel David, 2nd Baronet, was an important collector of Chinese porcelain.
David's background was a Jewish family in British India, but originating in Baghdad. His father, , was an important businessman in Bombay , and a banker, being a founder of the Bank of India.
David was educated in India, at Elphinstone College and the University of Bombay.
He married in 1920, in London, and in the following years began to collect Chinese art, and to study the Chinese language. He inherited his father’s baronetcy in 1926. He then went to Beijing, and promoted the display and exhibition of the Imperial collection of porcelain. He purchased there for himself the basis of his collection.
He joined the Oriental Ceramic Society in 1930, and subsequently sponsored exhibitions in London. He translated the ''Ge Gu Yao Lun'', a fourteenth century Ming period manual by Cao Zhao.
His collection is now held by the . It was presented in 1950 to the University of London, together with a library. From 2009 it will be displayed in the British Museum.
Family
David's background was a Jewish family in British India, but originating in Baghdad. His father, , was an important businessman in Bombay , and a banker, being a founder of the Bank of India.
Life
David was educated in India, at Elphinstone College and the University of Bombay.
He married in 1920, in London, and in the following years began to collect Chinese art, and to study the Chinese language. He inherited his father’s baronetcy in 1926. He then went to Beijing, and promoted the display and exhibition of the Imperial collection of porcelain. He purchased there for himself the basis of his collection.
He joined the Oriental Ceramic Society in 1930, and subsequently sponsored exhibitions in London. He translated the ''Ge Gu Yao Lun'', a fourteenth century Ming period manual by Cao Zhao.
Collection
His collection is now held by the . It was presented in 1950 to the University of London, together with a library. From 2009 it will be displayed in the British Museum.
Ming presentation porcelain
Ming presentation porcelain was a variety of high quality Chinese porcelain items included among the gifts exchanged in foreign relations during the Ming Dynasty. Among the great number and variety of Chinese ceramics found in Thailand and greater Southeast Asia is a variety that closely resembles Ming official ware in its use of dragon and phoenix motifs and high quality materials with workmanship. The scholar Liu Liangyou in an article entitled “Chinese Ceramics Excavated in Thailand” in the 49th issue of the ''National Palace Museum Monthly of Chinese Art'', suggested that such finely executed ceramics could only be products of an official workshop and part of the gift system in place for Ming Dynasty foreign relations. Liang quotes the ''Ming Dynastic History'' 339th chapter for Champa and Cambodia for the year 1383. The Ming court presented Siam nineteen thousand items of ceramic ware. Three years later it is also noted that the court presented Cambodia with an unspecified quantity of ceramic items. We can assume that the number of items was significant also and the time period for such exchanged continued at least through the early Ming dynastic period. The blue-and-white phoenix dish reproduced here, and discovered in Southeast Asia, is identical to the example in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, dated mid 15th century.
Longquan celadon
Longquan celadon refers to celadon to have produced in Longguan kilns which were largely located in the Zhejiang prefecture, China of the same name. With those in other prefectures the total of discovered kiln sites is over two hundred, making the Longquan celadon production area one of the largest historical ceramic centers in all of China.
Celadon production had a long history at Longquan and related sites, but it was not until the Five Dynasties and Northern Song period that production of scale truly began.
Five Dynasty wares displayed a variety of shapes and carved finishes with the characteristic "Yuezhou" glaze. In the Northern Song period the Dayao kiln site alone produced wares at twenty-three separate kilns. This being said the era of greatest ceramic production was not until the Southern Song 南宋 , and periods.
Longquan celadons thus were an important part of China's export economy for over five-hundred years. From the twentieth century native and foreign enthusiasts and scholars have flocked to the kiln sites. Among modern Chinese scholars themselves, the main kiln sites were first systematically investigated by Chen Wanli in 1927 and 1934. According to local gazetteer entries two celebrated ceramicists and brothers, Zhang Shengyi and Zhang Shenger , worked at the main Dayao kilns The ''Longquan Prefecture Gazetteer'' noted that their celadon reached jade-like perfection. Thus began the Ming period tradition of dividing the best Longquan wares into Elder Brother and Younger Brother categories. Elder Brother ware was thought to be the Geyao crackle glaze ware treasured by collectors throughout history. Recently this confusion has begun to resolve itself with excavations of the Hangzhou official ware kilns and others.
Southern Song celadons display the greatest variety of shape and glaze color. tea masters and collectors have treasured examples with a decidedly bluish glaze which they have termed "kinutaseiji" . Chinese collectors have perhaps enjoyed a greater variety of Longquan ware and devised a special vocabulary to describe them such as ''meizi ching'' or “plum green” celadon. After the Southern Song period Lonquan celadon experienced an expansion of production with a lessening of quality. However even the stoutly potted celadons of the Ming period have had their imitators at Jingdezhen and in Japan. Scholarly appreciation of Longquan celadon experienced great progress with the discovery of a sunken trade vessel in Sinan County off the Korean coast in 1976. It was discovered that finely finished Southern Song style celadon was manufactured well into the Mongol or Yuan period.
*Zhejiang Light Industry Office, ''A Study of Longquan Celadon'', Wenwu Publishing House, Beijing, 1989.
*National Museum of Korea, ''Special exhibition of Cultural Relics Found Off the Coast of Korea'', Samhwa Publishing Co., Seoul, 1977.
*Hanaoka and Barberri trans., Masahiko Sato, ''Chinese Ceramics: A Short History'', Weatherhill, New York and Tokyo, 1978.
Overview
Celadon production had a long history at Longquan and related sites, but it was not until the Five Dynasties and Northern Song period that production of scale truly began.
Five Dynasty wares displayed a variety of shapes and carved finishes with the characteristic "Yuezhou" glaze. In the Northern Song period the Dayao kiln site alone produced wares at twenty-three separate kilns. This being said the era of greatest ceramic production was not until the Southern Song 南宋 , and periods.
Longquan celadons thus were an important part of China's export economy for over five-hundred years. From the twentieth century native and foreign enthusiasts and scholars have flocked to the kiln sites. Among modern Chinese scholars themselves, the main kiln sites were first systematically investigated by Chen Wanli in 1927 and 1934. According to local gazetteer entries two celebrated ceramicists and brothers, Zhang Shengyi and Zhang Shenger , worked at the main Dayao kilns The ''Longquan Prefecture Gazetteer'' noted that their celadon reached jade-like perfection. Thus began the Ming period tradition of dividing the best Longquan wares into Elder Brother and Younger Brother categories. Elder Brother ware was thought to be the Geyao crackle glaze ware treasured by collectors throughout history. Recently this confusion has begun to resolve itself with excavations of the Hangzhou official ware kilns and others.
Southern Song celadons display the greatest variety of shape and glaze color. tea masters and collectors have treasured examples with a decidedly bluish glaze which they have termed "kinutaseiji" . Chinese collectors have perhaps enjoyed a greater variety of Longquan ware and devised a special vocabulary to describe them such as ''meizi ching'' or “plum green” celadon. After the Southern Song period Lonquan celadon experienced an expansion of production with a lessening of quality. However even the stoutly potted celadons of the Ming period have had their imitators at Jingdezhen and in Japan. Scholarly appreciation of Longquan celadon experienced great progress with the discovery of a sunken trade vessel in Sinan County off the Korean coast in 1976. It was discovered that finely finished Southern Song style celadon was manufactured well into the Mongol or Yuan period.
Bibliography
*Zhejiang Light Industry Office, ''A Study of Longquan Celadon'', Wenwu Publishing House, Beijing, 1989.
*National Museum of Korea, ''Special exhibition of Cultural Relics Found Off the Coast of Korea'', Samhwa Publishing Co., Seoul, 1977.
*Hanaoka and Barberri trans., Masahiko Sato, ''Chinese Ceramics: A Short History'', Weatherhill, New York and Tokyo, 1978.
Kraak porcelain
Kraak porcelain is a type of Chinese export porcelain produced mainly from the Wanli reign until around 1640. It was among the first export ware to arrive in Europe in mass quantities, and was frequently featured in Dutch still life paintings of foreign luxuries, as in the one by Jan Davidsz de Heem at right.
Kraak porcelain is believed to be named after the ships , in which it was transported. Carrak—or ''caracca'' in Italian or Spanish—is itself believed to be a derivative of the Arabic term for the type of trading ships used in Renaissance Mediterranean trade: ''qaraquir'', meaning simply merchant vessels. Although the link with Carrak ships is generally accepted as the root of the name ''Kraak ware'', other origins of the label have also been proposed. For example, Rinaldi points out that in Dutch the verb ''kraken'' means ''to break'' - a characteristic that certainly is common among Kraak wares. Moreover the term refers to the type of shelves that often displayed import blue and white porcelains in Friesland, north of Holland.
Kraak ware is almost all painted in the underglazed cobalt blue style that was perfected under the Ming dynasty, although a few examples of dishes over-painted with enamel glaze have survived . It is often decorated with variations on the more traditional motifs found on Chinese porcelain, such as stylized flowers and Buddhist . However, most characteristic of Kraak decoration is the use of foliated radial panels. In other words, the surface of the porcelain is divided into segments, each containing its own discrete image .
ware, ''Bowl with boys at play'', 1723-35; 7 x 14.6 cm; B60P1445 ]]
Shapes included , bowls, and vases. Kraak ware bowls fall into roughly two types; the first is a deep, unrimmed Chinese style bowl, taking roughly the same shape as the Qing enameled cup, . The second type are called ''Klapmutsen''. A Klapmuts is somewhat akin to what we would today call a soup-bowl—a broader-based, rimmed style that was new in the Chinese repertoire, and seems to have been exclusively exported to Europe. The specialist Maura Rinaldi suggests that the latter type was designed specifically to serve a European clientele, since there do not seem to be many surviving examples elsewhere in the world, even in the spectacular Topkap? Palace collection, which houses the most extensive selection of Kraak ware of all. Noting the importance of soups and stews in European diet, Rinaldi proposes that Klapmusten were developed to satisfy a foreign demand, noting that the heavy, long-handled, metal spoon that is common in Europe would have toppled and chipped the high-walled Chinese bowl.
The quality of the porcelain used to form Kraak ware is much disputed among scholars; some claim that it is surprisingly good, in certain cases indistinguishable from that produced on the domestic market; others imply that it's a dismal shadow of the truly fine ceramics China was capable of producing. Rinaldi comes to a more even-handed conclusion, noting that it "forms a middle category between much heavier wares, often coarse, and definitely finer wares with well levigated clay and smooth glaze that does not shrink on the rim... " Thus looking at ceramic production in China at the time from a larger prospective, kraak ware falls between the best examples and a typical provincial output, such as the contemporary ''Swatow'' ware.
Kraak was copied and imitated all over the world, by potters in and Persia—where Dutch merchants turned when the fall of the Ming Dynasty rendered Chinese originals unavailable—and ultimately in . As noted above, it made a frequent appearance in the sumptuous Dutch paintings of the seventeenth century .
Today a great deal is learned about Kraak ware through excavation of shipwrecks by . Because the wreck can usually be dated with some degree of certainty, its contents provides a clear snapshot of production at the moment the vessel went down. Moreover, its location can also indicate its destination point, thus revealing much about international trade routes and outposts at the time. In contrast to the other major European imports of the time , ceramics are able to withstand exposure to water, thus making it the ideal merchandise to serve as ballast cargo in the great ships. Yet from another perspective, porcelain's durability in this sense, even withstanding centuries of submersion at the bottom of the sea, means that it has been the good that has endured to tell these tales.
Name
Kraak porcelain is believed to be named after the ships , in which it was transported. Carrak—or ''caracca'' in Italian or Spanish—is itself believed to be a derivative of the Arabic term for the type of trading ships used in Renaissance Mediterranean trade: ''qaraquir'', meaning simply merchant vessels. Although the link with Carrak ships is generally accepted as the root of the name ''Kraak ware'', other origins of the label have also been proposed. For example, Rinaldi points out that in Dutch the verb ''kraken'' means ''to break'' - a characteristic that certainly is common among Kraak wares. Moreover the term refers to the type of shelves that often displayed import blue and white porcelains in Friesland, north of Holland.
Style
Kraak ware is almost all painted in the underglazed cobalt blue style that was perfected under the Ming dynasty, although a few examples of dishes over-painted with enamel glaze have survived . It is often decorated with variations on the more traditional motifs found on Chinese porcelain, such as stylized flowers and Buddhist . However, most characteristic of Kraak decoration is the use of foliated radial panels. In other words, the surface of the porcelain is divided into segments, each containing its own discrete image .
ware, ''Bowl with boys at play'', 1723-35; 7 x 14.6 cm; B60P1445 ]]
Shapes included , bowls, and vases. Kraak ware bowls fall into roughly two types; the first is a deep, unrimmed Chinese style bowl, taking roughly the same shape as the Qing enameled cup, . The second type are called ''Klapmutsen''. A Klapmuts is somewhat akin to what we would today call a soup-bowl—a broader-based, rimmed style that was new in the Chinese repertoire, and seems to have been exclusively exported to Europe. The specialist Maura Rinaldi suggests that the latter type was designed specifically to serve a European clientele, since there do not seem to be many surviving examples elsewhere in the world, even in the spectacular Topkap? Palace collection, which houses the most extensive selection of Kraak ware of all. Noting the importance of soups and stews in European diet, Rinaldi proposes that Klapmusten were developed to satisfy a foreign demand, noting that the heavy, long-handled, metal spoon that is common in Europe would have toppled and chipped the high-walled Chinese bowl.
The quality of the porcelain used to form Kraak ware is much disputed among scholars; some claim that it is surprisingly good, in certain cases indistinguishable from that produced on the domestic market; others imply that it's a dismal shadow of the truly fine ceramics China was capable of producing. Rinaldi comes to a more even-handed conclusion, noting that it "forms a middle category between much heavier wares, often coarse, and definitely finer wares with well levigated clay and smooth glaze that does not shrink on the rim... " Thus looking at ceramic production in China at the time from a larger prospective, kraak ware falls between the best examples and a typical provincial output, such as the contemporary ''Swatow'' ware.
Influence
Kraak was copied and imitated all over the world, by potters in and Persia—where Dutch merchants turned when the fall of the Ming Dynasty rendered Chinese originals unavailable—and ultimately in . As noted above, it made a frequent appearance in the sumptuous Dutch paintings of the seventeenth century .
Today a great deal is learned about Kraak ware through excavation of shipwrecks by . Because the wreck can usually be dated with some degree of certainty, its contents provides a clear snapshot of production at the moment the vessel went down. Moreover, its location can also indicate its destination point, thus revealing much about international trade routes and outposts at the time. In contrast to the other major European imports of the time , ceramics are able to withstand exposure to water, thus making it the ideal merchandise to serve as ballast cargo in the great ships. Yet from another perspective, porcelain's durability in this sense, even withstanding centuries of submersion at the bottom of the sea, means that it has been the good that has endured to tell these tales.
Kangxi transitional porcelain
Kangxi transitional porcelain was manufactured at China’s principle ceramic production area of Jingdezhen until 1680 when the production of “official ware” was resumed. The Manchu regime was established in 1644. For those many intervening years a variety of porcelain wares were created in private kilns for domestic use and export to client markets such as Japan. Prior to the reinstatement of the Imperial Kilns the private use of the dynastic reign name on ceramics was officially forbidden in the sixteenth year of Emperor Kangxi’s reign or in 1677. Previously in the years of the Ming emperor Wanli ceramics under government sponsorship slowly degenerated in quality until production itself was abandoned. The transitional ware of the early Kangxi decades witnessed a move away from designs and aesthetic standards of the painter Dong Qichang to newer tastes typified by the artist Shen Shitong and his use of western perspective. The influence of the artist Dong Qichang can be readily seen on ceramic ware of the period with its heavily accented light and dark tones. The change to Shen Shitung can be seen in generous vertical washes that create a definite foreground and background contrast. Kangxi transitional ware in its broadest sense is best appreciated and studied in Japan than in the west. The informality of design and shape appealed to Japanese taste and especially those involved in the tea ceremony. Palace ware or imperial ware has traditionally found many admirers in Europe and America. Kangxi reign marks on porcelain are few throughout the ceramic period, but a few can be identified with the pre 1677 decades. Earlier Ming period marks can frequently be found. Their styles closely match the few Kangxi marks that are found and aid in delineating Kangxi transitional porcelain.
Famille jaune, noire, rose, verte
Famille jaune, noire, rose, verte are terms used to classify by its colour palette.
Famille verte , adopted in the Kangxi , uses green and iron red with other overglaze colours. It developed from the Wucai style.
Famille jaune is a variation using famille verte on a yellow ground.
Famille noire uses a black ground .
Famille rose was introduced during the reign of Kangxi , possibly around 1720. It used mainly pink or purple and remained popular throughout the 18th and the 19th centuries.
Famille rose enamel ware allows a greater range of colour and tone than was previously possible, enabling the depiction of more complex images, including flowers, figures and insects.
It is made by drawing a sketch on the shaped clay, which is then covered with ‘glassy white’ , an opaque white enamel , and painted in detail with the mixture of pigment and oil, before .
Famille verte , adopted in the Kangxi , uses green and iron red with other overglaze colours. It developed from the Wucai style.
Famille jaune is a variation using famille verte on a yellow ground.
Famille noire uses a black ground .
Famille rose was introduced during the reign of Kangxi , possibly around 1720. It used mainly pink or purple and remained popular throughout the 18th and the 19th centuries.
Famille rose enamel ware allows a greater range of colour and tone than was previously possible, enabling the depiction of more complex images, including flowers, figures and insects.
It is made by drawing a sketch on the shaped clay, which is then covered with ‘glassy white’ , an opaque white enamel , and painted in detail with the mixture of pigment and oil, before .
Ding ware
Ding ware was produced in the prefecture of Dingzhou, starting from the end of the Tang Dynasty and finishing during the dynasty of northern China.
It is famous for the ivory-white or creamy-white colour of the majority of its products, although it also produced lines in other glazes, using varied techniques. The range and output of the wares was large, producing ceramics of high quality for the wealthy merchant class and the scholar-literati class, as well as tributary ceramics of the highest quality for the imperial court.
Ding ware had already become highly desirable during the Song Dynasty, due to its subtle colour and refined form. It inspired some of the early porcelain of Jingdezhen, and was endlessly copied by this and other kiln complexes, as late as the and Qing dynasties.
It is famous for the ivory-white or creamy-white colour of the majority of its products, although it also produced lines in other glazes, using varied techniques. The range and output of the wares was large, producing ceramics of high quality for the wealthy merchant class and the scholar-literati class, as well as tributary ceramics of the highest quality for the imperial court.
Ding ware had already become highly desirable during the Song Dynasty, due to its subtle colour and refined form. It inspired some of the early porcelain of Jingdezhen, and was endlessly copied by this and other kiln complexes, as late as the and Qing dynasties.
Dehua white porcelain in Japan
Dehua white porcelain in Japan was traditionally known among Japanese as ''hakugorai'' or “Korean White Ware.” Although Korai was a term for an ancient Korean kingdom, the term also functioned as a ubiquitous term for various products from the Korean peninsula. This is not to suggest that historically Japanese were entirely oblivious to the existence of the Fujian province kilns and their porcelain, now known as Dehua or Blanc de Chine ware.
The Dehua kilns are located in Fujian province opposite the island of Taiwan. Coastal Fujian province was traditionally a trade center for the Chinese economy with its many ports and urban centers. Fujian white ware was meant for all of maritime Asia. However a large quantity of these ceramics was intended for a Japanese market before drastic trade restrictions by the mid 1600s. Items were largely Buddhist images and ritual utensils utilized for family altar use. Associations with funerals and the dead have perhaps led to a certain disinterest in this ware among present day Japanese, despite an intense interest in other aspects of Chinese ceramic culture and history.
Many examples of great beauty of this ware have made their way to collections in the west from Japan. Among the countless Buddhist images meant for the Japanese market are those that with strongly stylized robes that show an influence from the Kano School of painting that dominated Tokugawa Japan. It seems a certainty that Dehua white ware was made with Japanese tastes in mind. Perhaps also likely is Japanese taste in the very plain white incense tripods and associated objects for Japanese religious and ritual observance. Of interest also are the Buddhist Goddesses of Mercy with child figures that close resembled Christian figurines. Such figurines were known as Maria Kannon or “Blessed Virgin Goddesses of Mercy” and were part of the “hidden Christian” culture of Tokugawa Japan which had strictly banned the religion.
White porcelain Buddhist statuary was extensively produced in Japan at the Hirado kilns and elsewhere. The two wares can be easily distinquished. Japanese figures are usually closed on the base and a small hole for ventilation can be seen. Hirado Ware also displays a slightly orange tinge on unglazed areas.
The Dehua kilns are located in Fujian province opposite the island of Taiwan. Coastal Fujian province was traditionally a trade center for the Chinese economy with its many ports and urban centers. Fujian white ware was meant for all of maritime Asia. However a large quantity of these ceramics was intended for a Japanese market before drastic trade restrictions by the mid 1600s. Items were largely Buddhist images and ritual utensils utilized for family altar use. Associations with funerals and the dead have perhaps led to a certain disinterest in this ware among present day Japanese, despite an intense interest in other aspects of Chinese ceramic culture and history.
Many examples of great beauty of this ware have made their way to collections in the west from Japan. Among the countless Buddhist images meant for the Japanese market are those that with strongly stylized robes that show an influence from the Kano School of painting that dominated Tokugawa Japan. It seems a certainty that Dehua white ware was made with Japanese tastes in mind. Perhaps also likely is Japanese taste in the very plain white incense tripods and associated objects for Japanese religious and ritual observance. Of interest also are the Buddhist Goddesses of Mercy with child figures that close resembled Christian figurines. Such figurines were known as Maria Kannon or “Blessed Virgin Goddesses of Mercy” and were part of the “hidden Christian” culture of Tokugawa Japan which had strictly banned the religion.
White porcelain Buddhist statuary was extensively produced in Japan at the Hirado kilns and elsewhere. The two wares can be easily distinquished. Japanese figures are usually closed on the base and a small hole for ventilation can be seen. Hirado Ware also displays a slightly orange tinge on unglazed areas.
David Sanctuary Howard
David Sanctuary Howard was a noted expert on Chinese armorial porcelain.
Born in Manchester 22 January 1928, he died 25 March 2005. He was educated at Stowe School. He served in the Coldstream Guards. He set up and ran Heirloom & Howard, a business specialising in restoring armorial artefacts to the families with whom they were connected. The business began in Mayfair and later relocated to Wiltshire.
Author of:
*''Chinese Armorial Porcelain'' Volume I
**Volume II
*'The Unforgiving Minute''.
He also published a number of other books.
Had four children with his first wife, Elizabeth North they were: Philippa Howard, Sophie Howard, Joanna Howard and Thomas Howard
Born in Manchester 22 January 1928, he died 25 March 2005. He was educated at Stowe School. He served in the Coldstream Guards. He set up and ran Heirloom & Howard, a business specialising in restoring armorial artefacts to the families with whom they were connected. The business began in Mayfair and later relocated to Wiltshire.
Author of:
*''Chinese Armorial Porcelain'' Volume I
**Volume II
*'The Unforgiving Minute''.
He also published a number of other books.
Had four children with his first wife, Elizabeth North they were: Philippa Howard, Sophie Howard, Joanna Howard and Thomas Howard
Chinese export porcelain
Chinese export porcelain concerns a wide range of porcelain that was made and decorated in China exclusively for export to Europe and later to North America between the 16th and the 20th century.
Wares from the 16th century include Kraak porcelain, , Blanc-de-Chine, Blue and white porcelain, , Chinese , Armorial wares and Canton porcelain. Chinese export porcelain is generally decorative, but without the symbolic significance of wares produced for the home market. With the exception of the rare ''Huashi'' soft paste wares, Chinese porcelain is hard paste made using china clay and Chinese porcelain stone, ''baidunzi''. While rim chips and hairline cracks are common, pieces tend not to stain. Chinese wares are usually thinner than and do not have the Japanese stilt marks.
In the 16th century, traders began importing late Ming dynasty Blue and white porcelain porcelains to Europe, resulting in the growth of the Kraak porcelain trade . In 1602 and 1604, two Portuguese carracks, the ''San Yago'' and ''Santa Catarina'', were captured by the and their cargos, which included thousands of items of porcelain, were auctioned, igniting a European mania for porcelain. Buyers included the Kings of England and France. Many European nations then established trading companies in the Far East, the most important being the Dutch East India Company or VOC. The trade continued until the mid-17th century when civil wars caused by the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644 disrupted suppliers and the European traders turned to Japan.
As valuable and highly-prized possessions, pieces of Chinese export porcelain appeared in many seventeenth-century . The illustration shows a painting by Jan Treck that includes two Kraak-style bowls, probably late Ming, the one in the foreground being of a type called by the Dutch ''klapmuts''. The blue pigment used by the artist has faded badly since the picture was painted.
Under the Kangxi reign the Chinese porcelain industry at Jingdezhen was reorganised and the export trade was soon flourishing again. Chinese export porcelain from the late 17th century included and Famille verte wares . Wares included garnitures of vases, , teawares, ewers, and other useful wares, figure models, animals and birds. Blanc-de-Chine porcelains and Yixing stonewares arrived in Europe giving inspiration to many of the European .
For the potters of Jingdezhen the manufacture of porcelain wares for the European export market presented new difficulties. Writing from the city in 1712 the French Jesuit missionary Père Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles records that ''"...the porcelain that is sent to Europe is made after new models that are often eccentric and difficult to reproduce; for the least defect they are refused by the merchants, and so they remain in the hands of the potters, who cannot sell them to the Chinese, for they do not like such pieces".''
Although European crests on Chinese porcelain can be found as early as the 16th century, around 1700 the demand for dramatically increased. Thousands of services were ordered with drawings of individuals' coats of arms being sent out to China to be copied and shipped back to Europe and, from the late 18th century, to North America. Some were lavishly painted in polychrome and gilding, while others, particularly later, might just incorporate a small crest or monogram in blue and white. Chinese copied the popular porcelains. Chinese Imari continued to be made for export into the second half of the 18th century, examples being recovered as part of the Nanking cargo from the wreck of the Geldermalsen.
A wide variety of shapes, some of Chinese or Islamic pottery origin, others copying Faience or metalwork were made. Oriental figures included Chinese gods and goddesses such as Guanyin and Budai , figures with nodding heads, seated monks and laughing boys as well as figures of men and women. From the mid-18th century, even copies of Meissen figures such as Tyrolean dancers were made for export to Europe. Birds and animals, including cows, , dogs, eagles, elephants, pheasants, monkeys and puppies, were popular.
From around 1720, the new Famille rose palette was adopted and quickly supplanted the earlier Famille verte porcelains of the Kangxi period. Famille rose enamels for the export market included the Mandarin Palette. Specific patterns such as tobacco leaf and faux tobacco leaf were popular as were, from around 1800, Canton decorated porcelain with its figures and birds, flowers and insects. Many other types of decoration such as encre de chine or Jesuist Wares, made for Christian , pieces with European subjects like the Judgment of Paris, or Adam and Eve, were made for the European market.
As trade developed, finer quality wares were shipped by private traders who rented space on the Dutch East India Company ships. The bulk export wares of the 18th century were typically teawares and dinner services, often decorated with flowers, pine, prunus, bamboo or with pagoda landscapes, a style that inspired the Willow pattern. They were sometimes ''clobbered'' in the Netherlands and England to enhance their decorative appeal. By the late 18th century, imports from China were in decline. Tastes were changing and competition from new European factories with mass-production brought about industrialisation took its toll.
Highly decorative Canton porcelain was produced throughout the 19th century but the quality of wares was in decline. By the end of the century, wares in the Kangxi style were produced in large quantities and almost every earlier style and type was copied into the 20th century.
Early China porcelain trade
Wares from the 16th century include Kraak porcelain, , Blanc-de-Chine, Blue and white porcelain, , Chinese , Armorial wares and Canton porcelain. Chinese export porcelain is generally decorative, but without the symbolic significance of wares produced for the home market. With the exception of the rare ''Huashi'' soft paste wares, Chinese porcelain is hard paste made using china clay and Chinese porcelain stone, ''baidunzi''. While rim chips and hairline cracks are common, pieces tend not to stain. Chinese wares are usually thinner than and do not have the Japanese stilt marks.
In the 16th century, traders began importing late Ming dynasty Blue and white porcelain porcelains to Europe, resulting in the growth of the Kraak porcelain trade . In 1602 and 1604, two Portuguese carracks, the ''San Yago'' and ''Santa Catarina'', were captured by the and their cargos, which included thousands of items of porcelain, were auctioned, igniting a European mania for porcelain. Buyers included the Kings of England and France. Many European nations then established trading companies in the Far East, the most important being the Dutch East India Company or VOC. The trade continued until the mid-17th century when civil wars caused by the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644 disrupted suppliers and the European traders turned to Japan.
As valuable and highly-prized possessions, pieces of Chinese export porcelain appeared in many seventeenth-century . The illustration shows a painting by Jan Treck that includes two Kraak-style bowls, probably late Ming, the one in the foreground being of a type called by the Dutch ''klapmuts''. The blue pigment used by the artist has faded badly since the picture was painted.
Under the Kangxi reign the Chinese porcelain industry at Jingdezhen was reorganised and the export trade was soon flourishing again. Chinese export porcelain from the late 17th century included and Famille verte wares . Wares included garnitures of vases, , teawares, ewers, and other useful wares, figure models, animals and birds. Blanc-de-Chine porcelains and Yixing stonewares arrived in Europe giving inspiration to many of the European .
For the potters of Jingdezhen the manufacture of porcelain wares for the European export market presented new difficulties. Writing from the city in 1712 the French Jesuit missionary Père Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles records that ''"...the porcelain that is sent to Europe is made after new models that are often eccentric and difficult to reproduce; for the least defect they are refused by the merchants, and so they remain in the hands of the potters, who cannot sell them to the Chinese, for they do not like such pieces".''
Wares and figures
Although European crests on Chinese porcelain can be found as early as the 16th century, around 1700 the demand for dramatically increased. Thousands of services were ordered with drawings of individuals' coats of arms being sent out to China to be copied and shipped back to Europe and, from the late 18th century, to North America. Some were lavishly painted in polychrome and gilding, while others, particularly later, might just incorporate a small crest or monogram in blue and white. Chinese copied the popular porcelains. Chinese Imari continued to be made for export into the second half of the 18th century, examples being recovered as part of the Nanking cargo from the wreck of the Geldermalsen.
A wide variety of shapes, some of Chinese or Islamic pottery origin, others copying Faience or metalwork were made. Oriental figures included Chinese gods and goddesses such as Guanyin and Budai , figures with nodding heads, seated monks and laughing boys as well as figures of men and women. From the mid-18th century, even copies of Meissen figures such as Tyrolean dancers were made for export to Europe. Birds and animals, including cows, , dogs, eagles, elephants, pheasants, monkeys and puppies, were popular.
From around 1720, the new Famille rose palette was adopted and quickly supplanted the earlier Famille verte porcelains of the Kangxi period. Famille rose enamels for the export market included the Mandarin Palette. Specific patterns such as tobacco leaf and faux tobacco leaf were popular as were, from around 1800, Canton decorated porcelain with its figures and birds, flowers and insects. Many other types of decoration such as encre de chine or Jesuist Wares, made for Christian , pieces with European subjects like the Judgment of Paris, or Adam and Eve, were made for the European market.
Later trade
As trade developed, finer quality wares were shipped by private traders who rented space on the Dutch East India Company ships. The bulk export wares of the 18th century were typically teawares and dinner services, often decorated with flowers, pine, prunus, bamboo or with pagoda landscapes, a style that inspired the Willow pattern. They were sometimes ''clobbered'' in the Netherlands and England to enhance their decorative appeal. By the late 18th century, imports from China were in decline. Tastes were changing and competition from new European factories with mass-production brought about industrialisation took its toll.
Highly decorative Canton porcelain was produced throughout the 19th century but the quality of wares was in decline. By the end of the century, wares in the Kangxi style were produced in large quantities and almost every earlier style and type was copied into the 20th century.
Canton porcelain
Canton porcelains are ceramic wares made for export in the 18th to the 20th centuries. The wares were made, glazed and fired at Jingdezhen but decorated with enamels at Canton in southern China prior to export by sea through that port.
Canton Famille rose in the 19th century was typically decorated with alternate panels of figures and birds, flowers and insects, predominantly in pink and green.
Canton Famille rose in the 19th century was typically decorated with alternate panels of figures and birds, flowers and insects, predominantly in pink and green.
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